Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder, medicine, food, and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as toxicity or infection.

Fungi as Source of food

Fungi as Source of Medicine

Ethnomycology

Medical Mycology

Fungal Infections and Diseases:

These infections are commonly called 'ringworm', but are not caused by worms. They are superficial infections of the skin, hair or nails caused by a variety of fungi which otherwise live in the soil, on animals, or sometimes only on people. Infections are spread by direct skin contact (with humans or animals), or indirectly from contaminated articles on floors or in the soil. Shared changing rooms and showers are often a source of tinea, while some infections are spread by sharing of items such as towels. People shed tiny pieces of skin all the time and if these contain a small amount of the fungus, it is able to survive in the environment and cause infection in someone else.

Aspergillosis

Candidiasis

Coccidioidomycosis (Valley Fever)

C. gattii Infection

Fungal Nail Infections

Mucormycosis

Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP)

Sporotrichosis

Blastomycosis

Candida auris

Fungal Eye Infections

Histoplasmosis

Ringworm

Talaromycosis

Fungal skin infections are caused when fungal spores invade dead keratin cells in the body. The infections are highly contagious and can be transmitted from person to person very easily, but they can also be found in communal spaces. Fungus breeds well in damp, warm conditions, so places like leisure centers, swimming pools, children’s soft play areas, and shared bathrooms can be full of fungus if they are not cleaned properly.

Some of the most frequently occurring fungal skin infections include ringworm, intertrigo, athlete’s foot, and tinea capitis. Though the symptoms of these infections can be unpleasant and irritating, they’re rarely dangerous and can be treated easily with the appropriate topical cream or oral medications.

1.Bacterial skin infections:

Bacterial skin infections often begin as small, red bumps that slowly increase in size. Some bacterial infections are mild and easily treated with topical antibiotics, but other infections require an oral antibiotic. Different types of bacterial skin infections include:

cellulitis

impetigo

boils

leprosy

2. Viral skin infections:

Viral skin infections are caused by a virus. These infections range from mild to severe. Different types of viral infections include:

shingles (herpes zoster)

chickenpox

Molluscum contagiosum

warts

measles

hand, foot, and mouth diseases

3. Fungal skin infections:

These types of skin infections are caused by a fungus and are most likely to develop in damp areas of the body, such as the feet or armpit. Some fungal infections aren’t contagious, and these infections are typically non-life-threatening.

Different types of fungal infections:

athlete’s foot

yeast infection

ringworm

nail fungus

oral thrush

diaper rash

3. Parasitic skin infection:

These types of skin infections are caused by a parasite. These infections can spread beyond the skin to the bloodstream and organs. Parasitic infection isn’t life-threatening but can be uncomfortable.

Different types of parasitic skin infections include:

lice

bedbugs

scabies

cutaneous larva migrans

Mushroom is a spore-bearing, fleshy fruiting body of a fungus, which grows above ground on soil or on the organic food source. The most important microscopic feature for identification of mushrooms is the spores. Their spores, called basidiospores, are produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. Mushrooms are the fruit bodies of members of the order Agaricales, whose type genus is agaricus and type species is the field mushroom, agaricus campestris. However, in modern molecularly defined classifications, not all members of the order agaricales produce mushroom fruit bodies, and many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders of the class agaricomycetes. It is formed within the mycelium, the mass of threadlike hyphae that make up the fungus. Many species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight, growing or expanding rapidly. In reality, all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mushroom fruit bodies, though they do expand rapidly by the absorption of fluids. An atypical mushroom is the lobster mushroom, which is deformed, by the mycoparasitic ascomycete hypomyces lactifluorum. Some are having pores underneath, others have spines.

Classification

Edible and toxic mushrooms

Medicinal mushrooms

Psychoactive mushrooms

Mushroom production technology

Mushrooms And Truffels

Yeast Food Microbiology

Food Spoilage

Yeast and Cancer

Yeast Genetics and Molecular Biology:

The awesome power of yeast genetics is partially due to the ability to quickly map a phenotype-producing gene to a region of the S. cerevisiae genome. For the past two decades S. cerevisiae has been the model system for much of molecular genetic research because the basic cellular mechanics of replication, recombination, cell division and metabolism are generally conserved between yeast and larger eukaryotes, including mammals.

Molecular genetics is the field of biology and genetics that studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level. The study of chromosomes and gene expression of an organism can give insight into heredity, genetic variation, and mutations.

Cellular Ageing:

Aging is not typically measured by time in yeast, but rather by the number of divisions an individual cell completes before it dies. An individual cell is easy to follow from birth to death because yeast divides asymmetrically by budding off new daughters. Unlike their mothers, the daughters start from scratch, having the potential for a full lifespan. Thus, individual cells are mortal, while the yeast population is immortal. The probability that a cell will continue dividing decreases exponentially as a function of the number of completed divisions. Thus, the mortality rate increases exponentially with age. However, it plateaus at older ages in similarity to what has been observed in other species. Yeasts undergo a variety of changes as they age, and some of these are clearly detrimental. In view of this, it is reasonable to speak of an aging process. In practical terms, yeast lifespan is measured by observing individual cells periodically under a microscope and removing buds with a micro-manipulator.

Yeast Ageing and Cell Death

Yeast Cell Factories

Yeast Apoptosis:

Apoptosis is an evolutionally conserved cell suicide program used by an organism to selectively eliminate dangerous, superfluous, or damaged cells. The phenomenon of yeast cells undergoing apoptosis has long been controversial, in part because of doubts of whether cell suicide could constitute an evolutionary advantage for unicellular organisms.

Organelle, Membrane, Autophagy:

Autophagy refers to a group of processes that involve degradation of cytoplasmic components including cytosol, macromolecular complexes, and organelles, within the vacuole or the lysosome of higher eukaryotes.

Fungal Genetics:

Fungal genetics is the study of the mechanisms of heritable information in fungi. Yeasts and filamentous fungi are extensively used as model organisms for eukaryotic genetic research, including cell cycle regulation, chromatin structure, genetic recombination, and gene regulation.

 Fermentation and Yeast Biotechnology:

Humans have taken advantage of the metabolism in a tiny fungus called yeast to create beer and wine from grains and fruits. Yeast Biotechnology can be defined as the application of yeast to the development of industrial products and processes. Fermentation now is used in various fields such as bread making, Beer brewing, wine brewing, chocolate production, probiotics etc.

Beer Yeast

Recent Advances in Fermentation Technology

Bioenergy and Biofuels:

Research is currently focusing on the transformation of new raw materials into biofuels. To date, yeast is the best micro-organism to produce alcoholic fermentation from simple sugars. Humans, with centuries of experience in this field in baking, wine-making or brewing, have very effective strains available to them. They are now used to make biofuels from renewable agricultural products - beet, sugar cane, molasses, and other amylase products. Research is currently focusing on the transformation of new raw materials into biofuels.

Industrial yeast strain improvement:

There are interesting opportunities to isolate or generate yeast variants that perform better than the currently used strains. Therefore there is the need for different strategies of strain selection and improvement available for both conventional and nonconventional yeasts. Exploiting the existing natural diversity and using techniques such as mutagenesis, protoplast fusion, breeding, genome shuffling and directed evolution to generate artificial diversity or the use of genetic modification strategies to alter traits in a more targeted way, have led to the selection of superior industrial yeasts. Furthermore, recent technological advances allowed the development of high-throughput techniques, such as ‘global transcription machinery engineering’ (gTME), to induce genetic variation, providing a new source of yeast genetic diversity.

Yeast Engineered to Make Cannabinoids

Yeast Genes Encode Both Toxin and Antidote

Yeast-Based Drug Discovery:

The humanized yeast model has emerged as a powerful tool in large-scale screenings directed to target human proteins. The high degree of cellular processes conservation between the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and higher eukaryotes has made this microorganism a valuable cell model to study the pathobiology of several human diseases.  The yeast target-based approach can be highly useful in the first-line screening of potentially active compounds to be tested in more complex cell models.

Yeast leads to serendipitous finding about a central nervous system disorder

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

 Yeast Bioremediation:

It refers to the bioremediation or biodegradation of contaminants and hazardous pollutants in the environment using yeast. The environment is under great stress due to industrialization and human interfering on the limited natural resources. Bioremediation is an increasingly popular method using microbial strains and their enzymes for degrading waste contaminants such as chlorinated pesticides or other pollutants to protect the environment from pollution. Bioremediation is based on biodegradative processes relate to microbial population dynamics in soil or water and its ability to consume xenobiotic as a carbon source.

Pathogenic Yeast and Food Spoilage:

Food spoilage due to bacteria and\or yeast contamination can be a costly problem for the food industry. Recent progress in DNA analysis has enabled rapid, accurate yeast identification methods to be developed. Armed with this precision identification it is possible to predict and eliminate the source of contamination. Some yeast is psychrophilic, and so they can grow at relatively low temperatures. In fact, the fermentation of wine and beer is often carried out at temperatures near 40°F. Because some kinds are psychrophiles, they can create a spoilage problem in meat coolers and other refrigerated storage areas. Because they can grow under conditions of high salt or sugar content, they can cause the spoilage of certain foods in which bacteria would not grow. Foods produced by the bacterial fermentation process, such as pickles and sauerkraut, can also be spoiled by yeasts which interfere with the normal fermentative process. While certain yeasts are pathogenic, yeast infections are much less common than bacterial infections.  Foodborne illness continues to be an urgent issue across the globe. The epidemiology of the foodborne disease is changing. New pathogens have emerged, and some have spread worldwide. These pathogens cause millions of cases of sporadic illness and chronic diseases, as well as large and challenging outbreaks over many states and nations.

Yeast and E. coli

Yeast strains

Yeast Stress and its Response:

Every cell has developed mechanisms to respond to changes in its environment and to adapt its growth and metabolism to unfavorable conditions. The unicellular eukaryote yeast has long proven as a particularly useful model system for the analysis of cellular stress responses, and the completion of the yeast genome sequence has only added to its power.

Yeast infections:

Most yeast infections are caused by a type of yeast called Candida albicans. Yeast is a fungus that normally lives in the vagina in small numbers. A vaginal yeast infection means that too many yeast cells are growing in the vagina. These infections are very common. When something happens to change the balance of these organisms, yeast can grow too much and cause symptoms. Vaginal yeast infections aren’t considered a sexually transmitted infection (STI). Sexual contact can spread it, but women who aren’t sexually active can also get them. Once you get a yeast infection, you’re also more likely to get another one.

Yeast Nuclear RNA Processing:

Nuclear RNA processing requires dynamic and intricately regulated machinery composed of multiple enzymes and their cofactors. Much progress has been made recently in describing the 3D structure of many elements of the nuclear degradation machinery and its cofactors. Similarly, the regulatory mechanisms that govern RNA processing are gradually coming into focus. Such advances invariably generate many new questions, which we highlight in this Yeast Congress 2019.

Yeast Epigenetics:

Yeast provides a flexible and rapid genetic system for studying cellular events. With an approximate generation time of 90 min, colonies containing millions of cells are produced after just 2 d of growth. In addition, yeast can propagate in both haploid and diploid forms, greatly facilitating genetic analysis. Like bacteria, haploid yeast cells can be mutated to produce specific nutritional requirements or auxotrophic genetic phenotypes, and recessive lethal mutations can either be maintained in haploids as conditional lethal alleles (e.g., temperature-sensitive mutants), or in heterozygotic diploids, which carry both wild-type and mutant alleles.

Yeast is a fermenting and leavening agent. Based on the type, yeast is segmented into baker's yeast, brewer's yeast, feed yeast, industrial yeast, bio-ethanol yeast, and wine yeast. Yeast is used in various end-use applications in the Food and Beverages, Feed and other sectors.

The other important cause is a rise in demand for convenience food products is one of the factors contributing to the market growth. The products containing yeast reduce the cost of time associated with food consumption and increase the quantity and variety of foods consumed. 

Further, the report states that one of the major challenges confronting the market is the stiff competition in the procurement of raw materials. The shortage of molasses also triggered competition among manufacturers worldwide.

Global baker's yeast market: The baker’s yeast market is expected to grow at a CAGR of close to 9% during the forecast period. The growth of the global baker's yeast market is directly linked to the increasing consumption of processed food, especially bakery items.

The global bakery market is expected to grow at a CAGR of more than 7% during the forecast period. China is experiencing high growth in the baker's yeast market due to increase in the demand for bakery products in both retail and food services.

Global brewer's yeast market: The brewer’s yeast market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 9% during the forecast period. This market is mainly driven by the growing demand for alcoholic beverages, which use yeast during the fermentation process. It is considered a probiotic as it contains nutrients, such as chromium, vitamin B, protein, selenium, potassium, iron, zinc, and magnesium.

Global feed yeast market: The feed yeast market is expected to grow at a CAGR of over 9% during the forecast period. Feed yeast is a cost-effective nutritive supplement for animals with negligible harmful effects.

Global industrial yeast market: The industrial yeast market is expected to grow at a CAGR of close to 8% during the forecast period. Yeast is widely used for various applications in industrial biotechnology. Various players in the market are coming together to develop improved industrial yeast strains.

The global market for baking ingredients is highly fragmented and is characterized by the presence of large and small vendors. The market is highly competitive, with all players competing to gain a greater market share. Intense competition and frequent changes in consumer preferences constitute significant risks for vendors. These vendors compete on the basis of numerous factors such as price, quality, product differentiation, distribution, and promotion. Vendor performance in the global baking ingredients market may be impacted by the changing consumer spending pattern and preferences due to increasing disposable incomes and changing lifestyles.

Visa

Any foreign national who is not a citizen of Canada or does not have visa exemption or Electronic Travel Authorisation (ETA) agreement may apply for a visa to enter the country. The Canadian Government issues the following two types of visas to foreign nationals:

• Temporary Canada Visa
• Permanent Canada Visa

Temporary Canada Visa: The temporary Canada visas allow the person to stay in Canada for a specific period of time. This time is usually up to 6 months. However, the temporary visa can be single entry or multiple entry visas.

Single entry visa allows the person to only enter Canada once, stay for 6 months and then return to their home country. A multiple entry visa allows the person to enter Canada multiple times until their visa expires and stay temporarily. The list of temporary Tourist Visa are:

1. Tourist Visa: Tourist visa allows the holder to enter Canada for the purposes of tourism in the country.

2. Super Visa: It allows parents or grandparents of Canadian citizens or Canadian Permanent Residents to visit their children or grandchildren for an extended stay.

3. Diplomatic and Official Visa: It gives permission to officials and diplomats from foreign countries to enter Canada for official duties and purposes.

4. Courtesy Visa: It is given to all those people who do not qualify for a Diplomatic and Official Visa but are considered of importance due to their ranks and positions

5. Facilitation Visa: They are given to Canadian citizens with dual nationalities who do not have a Canadian passport but have a passport of another nationality.

6. Business Visa: It is given to those who are traveling to Canada with business purposes as individuals or as a group of business people.

7. Giving Birth Purpose visa: It is given to people who fulfill all the criteria to stay temporarily in Canada and who are pregnant and want to give birth in the country. Giving birth in Canada makes the baby automatically a Canadian citizen.

8. Organ Donors Visa: It is given to a person who is traveling to Canada with the purpose of donating an organ to a Canadian citizen or Permanent Resident.

9. Student Visa: It is given to those who have an admission from a Canadian university to complete their studies. If you are going to Canada to study for less than 6 months, then you can only get a general visa, but for more than 6 months of studies, you will need a Student Visa.

10.Temporary Foreign Workers: These are given to those people who have a job offer in Canada and will work for up to 6 months. To get this visa, the person must present a valid job offer letter from an employer and qualify for a temporary visa.

11. Temporary Resident Permit: This permit is for people who need to go to Canada for different purposes but are otherwise not admissible for a Temporary Resident Visa (TRV).

Permanent Canada Visa: The permanent Canada visas are visas which allow the holder to permanently settle in the country. These are otherwise known as immigrant visas and can be of different types, as follows.

1. Federal Skilled Trades Programme (FSTP): This visa is given to people who are qualified tradespeople in occupations such as Carpenters, Aircraft Mechanics, Crane Operators, Heavy-duty Equipment Mechanics, Electricians, Machinists, Ironworkers, Welders, Plumbers, etc.

2. Federal Skilled Workers Programme (FSWP): This visa is given to people who have professions which are required in Canada. You must check what kind of occupations Canada needs at the point you are planning to apply and obtain the necessary points.

3. Provincial Nomination Programme (PNP): This visa is given to semi or low-skilled workers who can contribute to the Canadian economy through their work. The workers are placed in different provinces of Canada where the demand for their work is higher.

4.Quebec Selected Skilled Worker Programme: If you have one of the occupations which are required in the Canadian province of Quebec and you are fluent in French, then you can apply for this visa which will allow you to move and work permanently there.

5. Family Sponsorship Programme: This visa allows the spouses and dependent children of Canadian citizens or Permanent Residents to immigrate to Canada permanently.

6.Live-in Caregiver Programme: This visa is given to caregivers who are qualified to take care for the elderly, disabled people or children and live in a private home in Canada.

7. Canadian Experience Class: This type of immigrant visa is given to those who have a temporary student visa or a temporary workers visa and want to switch to a permanent resident status.

8.Business Immigrant Visa: It Contains three subtypes:

• Immigrant Investor Programme: The Immigrant Investor Program is for people who will make investments in the Canadian economy
•  Entrepreneur Programme: The Entrepreneur Program is for people who will be individually involved in contributing to the economy.
• Self-Employees Persons Programme: The Self-employed Persons Program is for people who have skills in business, athletics, culture, or farming and can start their own businesses

How to apply:

Step-1: Read complete information on the visa/permit requirements on the Canada website and download the appropriate application forms and checklist relevant to the purpose of your visit. Please refer to the “VISA TYPES” page to obtain details on visas/permits.

Step-2: Pay visa fees as per instructions in the Canadian Visa Office website.

Step-3: Book your slot for the Visa Interview and attend the Canadian Embassy with all the documents on that particular date

Step-4:  Fill out the application form and other relevant documents electronically and print. Forms (including the barcoded sheets) are to be printed on a white, bond quality, non-glossy paper, using a laser printer. If you are unable to provide all the supporting documents as mentioned, you are required to fill out and sign the waiver form and attach it with your application form. Failure to provide a completed and signed waiver form may result in additional delays or refusal of your application for a visa, permit or travel document.

Step-5: Visit your local Canada Visa Application Centre (CVAC), on the given date. Make sure you bring your passport, photographs, completed forms and all supporting documents as per checklist and IRCC fee instrument and payment instructions. Applicable service charges will be levied. Please ensure you bring an accepted method of payment.

Step-6: Pay the service charges, hand your complete application and obtain a receipt. This receipt contains your unique tracking number. Which you will need to track the progress of your application online.

Clinical Microbiology 2019

• Applied Microbiology
• Plant Microbiology
• water Microbiology
• Food Microbiology
• Acquatic Microbiology
• Advancements in pharmaceutical microbiology
• Applied and environmental microbiology
• Microbial metabolism and genetics
• Food microbiology and safety
• Hematological malignancies
• Nanopatches and nanovaccination
• Microbial Isolation, Characterisation and Identification
• Microbial Interactions: Biofilm Formation
• Geomicrobiology
• Bioinformatics and Data Analysis in Microbiology
• Environmental Microbiology
• Bacteriology

• Maheshi Mapalagamage, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
• Ferissa B. Ablola, University of the Philippines Manila, Philippines
• Maheshi Mapalagamage, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
• Claudia Durall, Uppsala Universitet, Sweden
• Aditi Chauhan, Panjab University, India
• Gautam Krishnan, Bits Pilani Kk Birla Goa Campus, India